Document Page: First | Prev | Next | All | Image | This Release | Search

Subject: IRAQ'S CW PROGRAM

Not Finally Evaluated Intelligence







TO FACILITATE ELECTRONIC ACCESS, THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN

REFORMATTED TO ELIMINATE INFORMATION THAT DOES NOT PERTAIN

TO GULF WAR ILLNESS ISSUES OR THAT IS CLASSIFIED. A COPY OF

THIS REDACTED DOCUMENT, IN ORIGINAL FORMAT, IS AVAILABLE ON

REQUEST.







IRAQ'S CHEMICAL WARFARE

PROGRAM: MORE SELF-RELIANT,

MORE DEADLY





A RESEARCH PAPER







IRAQ'S CHEMICAL WARFARE

PROGRAM: MORE SELF-RELIANT,

MORE DEADLY



SUMMARY

INFORMATION AVAILABLE

AS OF          AUGUST 1990 

WAS USED IN THIS REPORT







THE IRAQI CHEMICAL WARFARE (CW) PROGRAM, BY FAR THE LARGEST IN THE THIRD

WORLD, IS RAPIDLY BECOMING SELF-SUFFICIENT. BY 1993 IRAQ WILL HAVE COMPLET-

ED SEVERAL FACILITIES THAT WILL SUPPLY NEARLY ALL OF THE PRECURSOR CHEMICALS

NEEDED TO SUPPORT LARGE-SCALE NERVE AGENT PRODUCTION USING RAW MATERIALS

ACQUIRED IN THE COUNTRY. WITH OPTIMUM USE OF THEIR CW FACILITIES, THE

IRAQIS MAY THEN BE ABLE TO ACHIEVE COMBINED NERVE AND BLISTER AGENT

PRODUCTION LEVELS OF ABOUT 4,000 TONS PER YEAR-TWICE THE 2,000 TONS PER

YEAR THEY WERE PRODUCING BY THE END OF THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR-WITHOUT HAVING

TO WORRY ABOUT FOREIGN EMBARGOES OF MOST ESSENTIAL PRECURSORS. IN ADDITION,

THE APPARENT INTEGRATION OF PESTICIDE PRODUCTION INTO IRAQ'S CW INFRASTRUC-

TURE WILL LEND AN AIR OF LEGITIMACY TO THE PROGRAM



SINCE THE CEASE-FIRE WITH IRAN, IRAQ HAS STRESSED DEVELOPMENT OF ADVANCED

CW AGENTS AND DELIVERY SYSTEMS. IT IS PURSUING PERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS

SUCH AS VX THAT ARE MUCH MORE TOXIC THAN THE BLISTER AGENT MUSTARD AND

THE NERVE AGENT SARIN-THE PRINCIPAL AGENTS NOW IN IRAQ'S ARSENAL. IN

ADDITION, IRAQ PROBABLY IS DEVELOPING BINARY CHEMICAL WEAPONS WITH A

LONGER SHELF LIFE, ENABLING IT TO MAINTAIN A SIZABLE STOCKPILE. IRAQ ALSO IS SI-

MULTANEOUSLY DEVELOPING FIVE TYPES OF SHORT- TO INTERMEDIATE-RANGE BALLISTIC

MISSILES THAT MAY BE FITTED WITH CHEMICAL WARHEADS. MISSILE-DELIVERED CW

AGENTS WILL OFFER IRAQ GREATER STANDOFF CAPABILITY AND DETERRENT VALUE. IN

CONCERT WITH DEVELOPING A MORE SOPHISTICATED CW STOCKPILE, THE IRAQIS ARE

MAINTAINING A WIDE RANGE OF BATTLEFIELD-PROVEN DELIVERY OPTIONS, INCLUDING

BOMBS, SHELLS, AND ARTILLERY ROCKETS.



APPARENTLY IRAQ BELIEVES IT NEEDS CHEMICAL WEAPONS FOR DETERRENT PUR-

POSES-          AND AS A KEY WEAPON

SUPPORTING ITS PROFESSED ROLE AS MILITARY "PROTECTOR" OF THE ARAB WORLD. IN

CONJUNCTION WITH CW, IRAQ ALSO HAS AGGRESSIVE BIOLOGICAL WARFARE AND

BALLISTIC MISSILE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN WHICH SELF-SUFFICIENCY IS A

PRIMARY GOAL. THE HIGH PRIORITY ENJOYED BY THE CW PROGRAM PROBABLY ALSO

REFLECTS IRAQ'S PLEASURE WITH THE RESULTS OF MASSIVE NERVE AGENT STRIKES

AGAINST IRANIAN FORCES IN 1988 AND SUBSEQUENT CW USE AGAINST KURDISH

INSURGENTS. HOWEVER, IRAQI WILLINGNESS TO INITIATE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS

IN ANY FUTURE CONFLICT UNDOUBTEDLY WILL BE TEMPERED IF ITS OPPONENTS POSSESS

CREDIBLE CW CAPABILITIES.



THE IRAQI CW PROGRAM POSES A SERIOUS THREAT TO US FORCES AND INTERESTS IN

THE MIDDLE EAST







IRAQS CHEMICAL WARFARE

PROGRAM: MORE SELF-RELIANT,

MORE DEADLY





FOR EVERY INSECT THERE IS AN INSECTICIDE.



LT. GEN. MAHIR ABD AL-RASHID

COMMANDER, IRAQI VII CORPS

CIRCA 1985



NOW, IRAQ IS IN POSSESSION OF THE BINARY CHEMICAL

WEAPON.







SADDAM HUSAYN

1990







BACKGROUND



AFTER NEARLY TWO DECADES OF WORK, IRAQ HAS DEVELOPED

THE MOST EXTENSIVE CHEMICAL WARFARE (CW) PROGRAM IN

THE THIRD WORLD







THE OUTBREAK OF WAR WITH IRAN IN 

1980 PROVIDED THE IMPETUS FOR IRAQ TO ACCELERATE ITS

CW PROGRAM. LARGE-SCALE PRODUCTION OF THE BLISTER

AGENT MUSTARD PROBABLY BEGAN AT SAMARRA IN EARLY

1983; BY AUGUST OF THAT YEAR, IRAQ WAS USING THIS

AGENT AGAINST IRAN

APPENDIX B FOR

DETAILS OF IRAQI USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS)



IRAQ'S CONCERTED CW EFFORT DURING THE WAR ENABLED

THE IRAQIS TO ESTABLISH A SIZABLE AND SOPHISTICATED

INFRASTRUCTURE FOR R&D, PRODUCTION, TESTING, AND STOR-

AGE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS. (SEE APPENDIX C FOR A

SUMMARY OF IRAQ'S CW PROGRAM ORGANIZATION.) BY THE

WAR'S END, IRAQ WAS ABLE TO PRODUCE ABOUT 1,000 TONS

EACH PER YEAR OF BLISTER AND NERVE AGENTS. ALTHOUGH

IRAQ HAD LITTLE DIFFICULTY OBTAINING THE RAW MATERIALS IT

NEEDED TO SUPPORT SUCH PRODUCTION, IT BEGAN DEVELOP-

ING AN INDIGENOUS PRECURSOR PRODUCTION CAPABILITY

AFTER THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER WESTERN NATIONS

BEGAN CONTROLLING SALES OF KEY PRECURSOR CHEMICALS.







IRAQ ALSO HAS AGGRESSIVE BIOLOGICAL WARFARE (BW) AND

BALLISTIC MISSILE PROGRAMS THAT, IN MANY WAYS, PARALLEL

ITS CW EFFORT. AS WITH CW, THE BW AND MISSILE

EFFORTS ARE STRIVING FOR SELF-SUFFICIENCY. ALSO, ALL THREE

HIGH-PRIORITY PROGRAMS PLAY A KEY ROLE IN IRAQI DETER-

RENCE AGAINST ISRAEL'S          SUPERIOR

CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS CAPABILITY.



THE 1988 CEASE-FIRE WITH IRAN DID NOT DIMINISH THE

IMPORTANCE OF IRAQ'S CW PROGRAM, BUT IT DID SIGNIFI-

CANTLY ALTER THE PROGRAM'S FOCUS. THE DEMANDS OF THE

WAR NECESSITATED THAT IRAQ'S CW PROGRAM DEDICATE

MUCH OF ITS RESOURCES TO LARGE-SCALE PRODUCTION OF

CHEMICAL WEAPONS. FOLLOWING THE CEASE-FIRE, HOWEVER,

PRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS WITH A LIMITED SHELF

LIFE WAS NO LONGER PRACTICAL OR EVEN NECESSARY, FREEING

IRAQ TO ENHANCE ITS CW EFFORT IN PREPARATION FOR

FUTURE CONFLICTS. IRAQ APPARENTLY ALSO IS SEEKING WAYS

TO BETTER UTILIZE ITS SEMIDORMANT CW FACILITIES.





INDIGENOUS PRECURSOR PRODUCTION-KEY TO

ELIMINATING DEPENDENCE ON FOREIGN SUPPLIERS



IRAQ IS CONSTRUCTING SEVERAL FACILITIES THAT, WHEN COM-

PLETED BY 1993, WILL SUPPLY NEARLY ALL OF IRAQ'S PRECUR-

SOR CHEMICAL NEEDS USING INDIGENOUSLY ACQUIRED RAW







MATERIALS. IRAQ EMBARKED UPON THIS EFFORT IN THE MID-

1980S, SHORTLY AFTER INTERNATIONAL EXPORT CONTROLS ON

KEY PRECURSORS WERE FIRST ENACTED. IF THE PROJECT IS

SUCCESSFUL, THE IRAQIS ALMOST CERTAINLY WILL BE ABLE TO

PRODUCE SEVERAL G-SERIES NERVE AGENTS (PARTICULARLY

SARIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES)-AND PERHAPS MUSTARD AS

WELL-WITHOUT NEED FOR IMPORTED CHEMICALS



THE HEART OF IRAQ'S PRECURSOR PRODUCTION EFFORT IS THE

HABBANIYAH II FACILITY, WHICH INCLUDES A CHLORINE-

ALKALINE PLANT AND SEVERAL PROBABLE CW PRECURSOR

PRODUCTION LINES







IRAQI CW AGENTS USED DURING THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR





THE BLISTER AGENT MUSTARD AND THE NERVE AGENT SARIN

(GB) WERE PRODUCED IN LARGE AMOUNTS AT IRAQ'S

SAMARRA FACILITY AND USED AGAINST IRAN DURING THE

IRAN-IRAQ WAR. WE BELIEVE THAT LESSER AMOUNTS OF THE

NERVE AGENTS TABUN (GA) AND GF AND RIOT CONTROL

AGENT CS WERE USED AS WELL IRAQI MUSTARD ATTACKS

SEVERELY STRAINED IRAN'S MEDICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND,

IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE USE OF RIOT CONTROL AGENTS,

DISRUPTED SEVERAL IRANIAN OFFENSIVES. LARGE-SCALE USE

OF NERVE AGENTS IN 1988 INFLICTED SIGNIFICANT IRANIAN

CASUALTIES AND GREATLY SUPPORTED IRAQI OFFENSIVE OPER-

ATIONS







NEW CW AGENTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS-

DEVELOPING A MORE POTENT ARSENAL



ADVANCED AGENTS

WE BELIEVE THAT

IRAQ IS ENGAGED IN A SIZABLE EFFORT TO DEVELOP AND

PRODUCE ADDITIONAL CW AGENTS.







IRAQ IS DEVELOPING OR HAS ALREADY PRODUCED SOME OF THE

MORE PERSISTENT ANALOGS OF SARIN, SUCH AS SOMAN

GF. WE BELIEVE THAT THE IRAQIS PRODUCED AND USED

SOME GF TOWARD THE END OF THE WAR WITH IRAN.







IRAQI NERVE AGENT RESEARCH APPARENTLY HAS FOCUSED ON 

VX AS WELL.







BECAUSE VX IS VERY PERSISTENT AND TOXIC, IT

PROBABLY WOULD BE AN OPTIMUM CW AGENT TO PLACE IN

A BALLISTIC MISSILE WARHEAD.







IRAQ MAY BE INVESTIGATING ENTIRELY NEW CLASSES OF

COMPOUNDS FOR USE AS CW AGENTS.







IMPROVED PRODUCTION METHODS

SINCE THE CEASE-FIRE WITH IRAN, THE IRAQIS APPARENTLY

HAVE BEEN OPTIMIZING THEIR CW AGENT PRODUCTION

PROCESSES AND SEARCHING FOR NEW ROUTES OF MANUFAC-

TURE. THE GOALS OF THIS EFFORT PROBABLY ARE TO SIMPLIFY

THE PRODUCTION OF CW AGENTS, REDUCE BOTTLENECKS IN

THE PROCESS, AND RELY ON INDIGENOUSLY PRODUCED OR

EASILY ACQUIRED RAW MATERIALS.







LONGER SHELF LIFE

WE BELIEVE THAT IRAQ IS ATTEMPTING TO LENGTHEN THE

SHELF LIFE OF ITS CW AGENTS, PARTICULARLY SARIN, SO THAT A

SIZABLE CHEMICAL WEAPONS STOCKPILE CAN BE MAIN-

TAINED.







DELIVERY SYSTENTS-MAINTAINING A

WIDE RANGE OF OPTIONS





BOMBS, SHELLS, AND ROCKETS-TRIED AND TRUE

THE IRAQIS HAVE THE CAPABILITY TO FILL A VARIETY OF

MUNITIONS SYSTEMS WITH CHEMICAL AGENTS.







BALLISTIC MISSILES-THE LONG-RANGE OPTION

IRAQ IS DEVELOPING A LONG-RANGE CW DELIVERY CAPABILI-

TY TO AUGMENT ITS EXTENSIVE SHORT-RANGE TACTICAL CAPA-

BILITIES. MOST OBVIOUS, AND PROBABLY OF GREATEST CON-

CERN, IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL WARHEADS FOR

BALLISTIC MISSILES. IRAQ PROBABLY WILL DEVELOP AND







MANUFACTURE CHEMICAL WARHEADS FOR EACH KIND OF

MISSILE UNDER DEVELOPMENT.







THERE ARE CHEAPER WAYS FOR IRAQ TO DELIVER CHEMICAL

MUNITIONS THAN A BALLISTIC MISSILE. ARTILLERY AND AIR-

CRAFT CAN DO THE JOB AND WITH MORE PRECISION, AT LEAST

AT PRESENT. BALLISTIC MISSILES WILL BE THE PREFERRED

DELIVERY SYSTEM, HOWEVER, BECAUSE THEY PROVIDE GREAT-

ER STANDOFF CAPABILITY, CANNOT BE EASILY DEFENDED

AGAINST, AND OFFER MORE PRESTIGE AND HIGHER DETERRENT

VALUE. ALTHOUGH IRAQ HAS HAD GREAT SUCCESS USING

BALLISTIC MISSILES ARMED WITH CONVENTIONAL HIGH EXPLO-

SIVES AGAINST CITIES, THE INACCURACY OF ITS MISSILE

SYSTEMS MAKES THE USE OF CHEMICAL WARHEADS VERY

ATTRACTIVE. BECAUSE CHEMICAL WARHEADS CAN DISPERSE

LETHAL CONCENTRATIONS OVER A LARGER AREA, THEY ARE MORE

COST EFFECTIVE, RESULT IN A GREATER NUMBER OF HUMAN

CASUALTIES, AND PROVIDE A PSYCHOLOGICAL EDGE. 







CW PROTECTION AND TRAINING





IRAQ GRADUALLY BUILT UP A PROTECTIVE CW CAPABILITY

DURING THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR, PRIMARILY TO MINIMIZE IRAQI

CASUALTIES FROM INADVERTENT EXPOSURE TO ITS OWN CHEMI-

CAL ATTACKS. HOWEVER, PROTECTION AGAINST IRANIAN CW

ATTACKS BECAME NECESSARY TOWARD THE END OF THE WAR

AS IRAN BEGAN LIMITED USE OF ITS VASTLY INFERIOR CHEMI-

CAL ARSENAL. IRAQ HAS CONTINUED TO EXPAND ITS PROTEC-

TIVE CAPABILITY FOLLOWING THE CEASE-FIRE, PROBABLY WITH

THE REALIZATION THAT FUTURE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS IN

CONFLICTS







AS IN OTHER FACETS OF ITS MILITARY INDUSTRIES, IRAQ HAS

CHOSEN TO PRODUCE INDIGENOUSLY A LARGE PORTION OF ITS

CW PROTECTIVE REQUIREMENTS.







CW PROTECTIVE MASKS, FILTERS, SUITS,

BOOTS, AND GLOVES ARE PRODUCED THERE AND SOLD TO

VARIOUS COMPANIES, OFTEN FOR REEXPORT.







IRAQ ALSO CONTINUES TO TRAIN ITS TROOPS TO OPERATE IN A

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT.







SOME OF THE CW TRAINING IRAQ PROVIDES COVERS OFFEN-

SIVE ASPECTS OF CW.







DECLINING IMPORTANCE OF FOREIGN ASSISTANCE





IRAQ HAS BEEN EXTREMELY ADEPT AT PROCURING THE

SERVICES OF FOREIGN FIRMS AND INDIVIDUALS TO SUPPORT ITS

CW-RELATED ACTIVITIES.







HOWEVER, IRAQ'S ONCE NEAR-TOTAL DEPENDENCE ON FOR-

EIGN EXPERTISE AND MATERIALS HAS DECLINED MARKEDLY

(SINCE THE EARLY 1980s AS IRAQIS GAINED CW EXPERIENCE

AND EMBARKED UPON AN INDIGENOUS PRECURSOR PRODUC-

TION EFFORT.







OUTLOOK-DETERRENCE, SELF-SUFFICIENCY, FIRST-USE

CONSIDERATIONS, AND THREAT TO THE UNITED STATES





IN OUR JUDGMENT, IRAQ BELIEVES IT NEEDS CHEMICAL

WEAPONS FOR DETERRENT PURPOSES,







THE

IRAQIS BELIEVE THEIR CHEMICAL WEAPONS ARE SUITABLE

DETERRENTS          AND DEVEL-

OPED THIS THEME IN AN EARLY 1990 PRESS CAMPAIGN.

CONTINUED EMPHASIS ON DEVELOPING NEW OR IMPROVED

STRATEGIC SYSTEMS-SUCH AS LONGER RANGE SURFACE-TO-

SURFACE MISSILES AND THE "BIG GUN" LONG-RANGE ARTIL-

LERY PROJECT-PROBABLY IS TIED TO IRAQ'S DESIRE TO

IMPROVE THE LETHALITY AND RANGE OF ITS CHEMICAL THREAT.







WE JUDGE THAT TACTICAL USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS IN

SUPPORT OF CONVENTIONAL OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE OPERA-

TIONS HAS BEEN INCORPORATED INTO IRAQI MILITARY DOC-

TRINE. IRAQ UTILIZED CHEMICAL WEAPONS PRIMARILY DURING

THE LAST HALF OF THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR, WHICH LED TO

BATTLEFIELD DEVELOPMENT OF IRAQ'S CW DOCTRINE. THE 

DECISION TO USE CHEMICALS DURING THE WAR, HOWEVER,

WAS UNDOUBTEDLY INFLUENCED BY THE LACK OF A SIGNIFI-

CANT IRANIAN COUNTERCAPABILITY. WE BELIEVE IRAQ WILL

BE LESS LIKELY TO INITIATE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS IN

FUTURE SCENARIOS IF ITS OPPONENT IS ARMED WITH A

CREDIBLE CW CAPABILITY.







WE ASSESS THAT IRAQ'S EXTENSIVE CW CAPABILITY POSES A

SERIOUS THREAT TO US FORCES AND INTERESTS IN THE MIDDLE

EAST. IRAQ HAS THE CAPABILITY TO DELIVER LARGE AMOUNTS

OF CW AGENTS ON THE BATTLEFIELD AND HAS SHOWN A

WILLINGNESS TO DO SO DURING THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR







THE TARGETING OF CIVILIANS IS IN LINE WITH IRAQI THREATS

TO "TURN KUWAIT INTO A GRAVEYARD" IN CASE OF FOREIGN

INTERVENTION.







HOWEVER, IRAQ MAY BY NOW HAVE DEVELOPED BINARY

SARIN WEAPONS WITH A MUCH LONGER SHELF LIFE. AS A

RESULT, IRAQI FORCES PROBABLY NOW CAN MAINTAIN SIGNIFI-

CANT STOCKS OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS AND USE THEM AT ITS

CONVENIENCE.





IN OUR JUDGMENT, THE CW AGENTS IRAQ IS MOST LIKELY TO

USE IN AN INCURSION INTO SAUDI ARABIA ARE SARIN

(PROBABLY IN BINARY MUNITIONS) AND MUSTARD. SARIN

WOULD BE THE AGENT OF CHOICE FOR TARGETS THAT IRAQ

WANTS TO OCCUPY QUICKLY-INCLUDING OILFIELDS AND OTH-

ER KEY OBJECTIVES-AS WELL AS ON BATTLEFIELD DEFENSES.

MUSTARD MIGHT BE USED TO PROTECT IRAQI FLANKS AND,

AGAINST KEY TRANSPORTATION NODES, TO HINDER MOVEMENT

AND RESUPPLY OF OPPOSING FORCES. THE SEMIPERSISTENT

NERVE AGENT GF COULD BE USED IN PLACE OF SARIN IF THE

TARGET NEED NOT BE CAPTURED IMMEDIATELY. AGENTS LESS

LIKELY TO BE USED-BUT STILL POTENTIAL THREATS-INCLUDE

THE NERVE AGENTS VX AND SOMAN, NITROGEN MUSTARD,

AND PERHAPS EVEN NONLETHAL TEAR GAS AND VOMITING

AGENTS.







OF THE MANY CW DELIVERY SYSTEMS AVAILABLE TO IRAQ,

WE BELIEVE THAT ARTILLERY ROCKETS AND AIRCRAFT-DELIVERED

BOMBS ARE THE MOST LIKELY TO BE USED BY IRAQ. IT IS

POSSIBLE THAT IRAQ HAS ALREADY PRODUCED A FEW CHEMI-

CAL WARHEADS FOR ITS SCUD-TYPE MISSILES; IF IT HAS

INDEED DONE SO, IRAQ WOULD GREATLY INCREASE ITS CAPA-

BILITY TO STRIKE SAUDI POPULATION CENTERS, AIRFIELDS, AND

STAGING AREAS WITH CW AGENTS.







APPENDIX B



IRAQI USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS





IRAN-IRAQ WAR

THE MOST VISIBLE ASPECT OF IRAQ'S CW PROGRAM HAS

BEEN THE WIDESPREAD USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS AGAINST

IRAN. BETWEEN 1983 AND 1988, IRAQ USED CHEMICAL

WEAPONS ON A SCALE NOT SEEN SINCE WORLD WAR I. THE

EFFECTIVENESS OF THESE ATTACKS WAS MINIMAL AT FIRST BUT

INCREASED GRADUALLY AS IRAQ GAINED EXPERIENCE IN CW

AND DEVELOPED NEW AGENTS, WEAPONS, AND TACTICS.







CHEMICAL WEAPONS HELPED

BRING THE WAR TO A FAIRLY SUDDEN CONCLUSION IN 1988,

WHEN IRAQ INCORPORATED MASSED NERVE AGENT STRIKES

INTO A SERIES OF HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL OFFENSIVES.



IRAQI USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS AGAINST IRAN CAN BE

DIVIDED INTO THREE DISTINCT PHASES. THE FIRST PHASE,

WHICH CONTINUED UNTIL 1986, INVOLVED THE USE OF CW 

AGENTS IN A STRICTLY DEFENSIVE ROLE, TO DISRUPT OR HALT

IRANIAN OFFENSIVES. IN A TRANSITIONARY PHASE LASTING

FROM LATE 1986 TO EARLY 1988, IRAQ USED CHEMICAL

WEAPONS PREEMPTIVELY AGAINST STAGING AREAS PRIOR TO

IRANIAN OFFENSIVES, WHILE CONTINUING TO RELY ON CW TO 

DISRUPT THESE OFFENSIVES. FINALLY, AND MOST SIGNIFICANT-

LY, IRAQ USED MASSED NERVE AGENT STRIKES AS AN INTEGRAL

PART OF ITS WELL-ORCHESTRATED OFFENSIVES IN THE SPRING

AND SUMMER OF 1988. THE SUCCESS OF THESE OFFENSIVES

PROMPTED IRAN TO ACCEPT A CEASE-FIRE IN AUGUST 1988.



WE ASSESS THAT IRAQ DECIDED TO USE CHEMICAL WEAPONS

AS A FORCE MULTIPLIER, TO COMPENSATE FOR IRAN'S MAN-

POWER ADVANTAGE. IRAQ'S USE OF CW HELPED TO MINI-

MIZE IRAQI PERSONNEL AND LAND LOSSES BY STALLING

IRANIAN HUMAN WAVE ATTACKS. IRAQI CW USE WAS

ENHANCED BY THE LIMITED IRANIAN CW PROTECTIVE CAPA-

BILITY AND IRAN'S INABILITY TO RETALIATE IN KIND ON ANY

APPRECIABLE SCALE.



DURING THE EARLY DAYS OF THE WAR, IRAQ'S USE OF CW

AGENTS WAS OFTEN INEFFECTIVE. MANY OF THESE EARLY

PROBLEMS CAN PROBABLY BE ATTRIBUTED TO POOR IRAQI CW

EMPLOYMENT TECHNIQUES. IN SOME CASES THE IRAQIS

WOULD USE AGENTS UNDER UNSUITABLE WEATHER CONDI-

TIONS, SUCH AS WHEN THE WIND WAS BLOWING TOWARD THEIR

OWN TROOPS. IN THE CASE OF AERIAL CW BOMBS, IRAQI

PILOTS WOULD RELEASE CHEMICAL MUNITIONS FROM ALTI-

TUDES TOO HIGH TO PERMIT ACCURATE, CONCENTRATED

STRIKES.



AS THE WAR PROGRESSED, THE IRAQIS BECAME MUCH MORE

PROFICIENT IN THE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS. WE BELIEVE

THAT ONE CONTRIBUTING REASON FOR THIS WAS THE DELEGA-

TION OF CW RELEASE AUTHORITY TO IRAQI CORPS-LEVEL

COMMANDERS IN 1986. THIS PERMITTED BETTER INTEGRA-

TION OF CW INTO BATTLEFIELD PLANNING. BEFORE 1986,

RELEASE FOR CW WAS HELD AT THE HIGHEST LEVELS OF THE

IRAQI GOVEMMENT.



IN 1988 IRAQ BEGAN TO FULLY INTEGRATE CW INTO ITS

SUCCESSFUL OFFENSIVES. IN THE BATTLES OF AL FAW, FISH

LAKE, AND MAJNOON ISLANDS DURING THE FINAL MONTHS OF

THE WAR, IRAQ MADE HEAVY USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS.

FOR EXAMPLE, IN THE APRIL 1988 BATTLE TO RECAPTURE THE

AL FAW PENINSULA, WE ESTIMATE THAT THE IRAQIS USED

WELL OVER 100 TONS OF CW AGENT







THE SUDDENNESS AND SEVERITY OF THIS ATTACK DISRUPTED

IRANIAN COMMAND AND CONTROL, DECIMATED KEY UNITS,

AND THREW THE IRANIAN DEFENDERS INTO DISARRAY. THE

RESULTING VICTORY TOOK ONLY 30 HOURS, WHICH SURPRISED

EVEN THE IRAQI MILITARY PLANNERS. SUBSEQUENT OFFEN-

SIVE WERE PRECEDED BY MASSED CHEMICAL ATTACKS AND

MET WITH SIMILIAR SUCCESS.







KURDISH INSURGENCY

IRAQ USED

BOTH LETHAL AND NONLETHAL CHEMICAL AGENTS AGAINST

KURDISH INSURGENTS IN LATE AUGUST 1988.







HOWEVER, NO CASES OF EXPOSURE TO THESE AGENTS WERE

IDENTIFIED AMONG THE KURDISH REFUGEES THAT FLED TO

TURKEY.          CLAIMING

TO HAVE WITNESSED IRAQI CHEMICAL ATTACKS LED US TO

BELIEVE THAT MANY OF THESE KURDS WERE EXPOSED TO

NONLETHAL IRRITANT OR VOMITING AGENTS.







APPENDIX C



CW PROGRAM ORGANIZATION







MAJ. GEN. HUSAYN KAMIL AL-MAJID,

HEAD OF THE MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY AND MILITARY INDUS-

TRIALIZATION (MIMI-THE SENIOR ORGANIZATION TO WHICH

MOST OF IRAQ'S MILITARY INSTITUTIONS OSTENSIBLY BE-

LONG-PROBABLY IS FAMILIAR WITH MOST ASPECTS OF THE

CW PROGRAM, BUT WE BELIEVE THAT MIMI SERVES NO

DIRECT ROLE IN THE PROGRAM,







APPENDIX D



CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS

AND FIELD EMPLOYMENT



IN GENERAL, THE AMOUNT OF CW AGENT DELIVERED DETER-

MINES THE EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION AND THE NUMBER OF

CASUALTIES.







THE NUMBER OF RESULTANT CASU-

ALTIES DEPENDS ON THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN THE CONTAM- 

INATED AREA, LENGTH OF WARNING, DEGREE OF PROTECTION,

AND PERSISTENCY AND TOXICITY OF THE AGENT USED. THE

PERSISTENCY OF A SPECIFIC AGENT (LENGTH OF TIME IT

REMAINS EFFECTIVE) VARIES, DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF

MUNITION USED AND THE WEATHER CONDITIONS. FOR EXAM-

PLE, THE PERSISTENCY OF SARIN UNDER HOT, WINDY CONDI-

TIONS IS MUCH LESS THAN ONE HOUR; THE PERSISTENCY OF

MUSTARD OR VX MAY BE SEVERAL DAYS TO WEEKS UNDER

COOL, CALM CONDITIONS. IN ALL CASES, GIVEN SUBLETHAL

DOSES OF AN AGENT, INCAPACITATION WILL OCCUR TO VARYING

DEGREES.



BLISTER AGENTS

BLISTER AGENTS ARE PRIMARILY USED TO CAUSE MEDICAL

CASUALTIES. THESE AGENTS MAY ALSO BE USED TO RESTRICT

USE OF TERRAIN, TO SLOW MOVEMENTS, AND TO HAMPER USE

OF MATERIEL AND INSTALLATIONS. BLISTER AGENTS AFFECT THE

EYES AND LUNGS AND BLISTER THE SKIN. SULFUR MUSTARD,

NITROGEN MUSTARD, AND LEWISITE ARE EXAMPLES OF BLISTER

AGENTS. MOST BLISTER AGENTS ARE INSIDIOUS IN ACTION;

THERE IS LITTLE OR NO PAIN AT THE TIME OF EXPOSURE EXCEPT

WITH LEWISITE, WHICH CAUSES IMMEDIATE PAIN ON

CONTACT.



MUSTARD IS PREFERRED OVER LEWISITE BECAUSE LEWISITE

HYDROLYZES VERY RAPIDLY UPON EXPOSURE TO ATMOSPHERIC

MOISTURE TO FORM A NONVOLATILE SOLID. THIS CONVERSION

LOWERS THE VAPOR HAZARD FROM CONTAMINATED TERRAIN

AND DECREASES THE PENETRATION OF THE AGENT THROUGH

CLOTHING. LEWISITE IS LESS PERSISTENT THAN IS MUSTARD; 

HOWEVER, THE PERSISTENCY OF BOTH IS LIMITED UNDER

HUMID CONDITIONS.



BLOOD AGENTS 



BLOOD AGENTS ARE ABSORBED INTO THE BODY PRIMARILY BY

BREATHING. THEY PREVENT THE NORMAL UTILIZATION OF

OXYGEN BY THE CELLS AND CAUSE RAPID DAMAGE TO BODY

TISSUES. BLOOD AGENTS SUCH AS HYDROGEN CYANIDE (AC)

AND EYANOGEN CHLORIDE (CK) ARE HIGHLY VOLATILE AND IN

THE GASEOUS STATE DISSIPATE RAPIDLY IN AIR-GENERALLY

WITHIN MINUTES. BECAUSE OF THEIR HIGH VOLATILITY, THESE

AGENTS ARE MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN SURPRISE CAN BE

ACHIEVED AGAINST TROOPS WHO DO NOT HAVE MASKS OR WHO

ARE POORLY TRAINED IN MASK DISCIPLINE. IN ADDITION,

BLOOD AGENTS ARE IDEALLY SUITED FOR USE ON TERRAIN THAT

THE USER HOPES TO OCCUPY WITHIN A SHORT TIME. BLOOD



CHOKING AGENTS

CHOKING AGENTS ARE THE OLDEST CW AGENTS. THIS CLASS

OF AGENTS INCLUDES CHLORINE AND PHOSGENE, BOTH OF

WHICH WERE USED IN WORLD WAR I. IN SUFFICIENT

CONCENTRATIONS, THEIR CORROSIVE EFFECT ON THE RESPIRA-

TORY SYSTEM RESULTS IN PULMONARY EDEMA, FILLING THE

LUNGS WITH FLUID AND CHOKING THE VICTIM. PHOSGENE IS

MORE EFFECTIVE THAN CHLORINE BECAUSE IT IS SLOWLY

HYDROLYZED BY THE WATER IN THE LINING OF THE LUNGS,

FORMING HYDROCHLORIC ACID, WHICH READILY DESTROYS THE

TISSUE.



THESE AGENTS ARE HEAVY GASES THAT REMAIN NEAR GROUND

LEVEL AND TEND TO FILL DEPRESSIONS SUCH AS FOXHOLES AND

TRENCHES. BECAUSE THEY ARE GASES, THEY ARE NONPERSIS-

TENT AND DISSIPATE RAPIDLY, EVEN IN A SLIGHT BREEZE. AS A

RESULT, THESE ARE AMONG THE LEAST EFFECTIVE TRADITIONAL

CW AGENTS. THEY ARE USEFUL FOR CREATING A SHORT-TERM

RESPIRATORY HAZARD ON TERRAIN THAT IS TO BE QUICKLY

OCCUPIED.



NERVE AGENTS

NERVE AGENTS, INCLUDING TABUN (GA), SARIN (GB), SO-

MAN (GD) AND VX, ARE MEMBERS OF A CLASS OF

COMPOUNDS THAT ARE MORE TOXIC AND QUICKER ACTING

THAN IS MUSTARD. THEY ARE ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COM-

POUNDS THAT INHIBIT ACTION OF THE ENZYME CHOLINESTER-

ASE. IN SUFFICIENT CONCENTRATION, THE ULTIMATE EFFECT OF

THESE AGENTS IS PARALYSIS OF THE RESPIRATORY MUSCULA-

TURE AND SUBSEQUENT DEATH.



NERVE AGENTS ACT RAPIDLY (WITHIN SECONDS OF EXPOSURE)

AND MAY BE ABSORBED THROUGH THE SKIN OR THROUGH THE

RESPIRATORY TRACT. EXPOSURE TO A LETHAL DOSE MAY CAUSE

DEATH IN LESS THAN 15 MINUTES. THEY ARE STORED IN 

MUNITIONS AS LIQUIDS AND ARE GENERALLY DISSEMINATED AS

AEROSOLS.



TRADITIONAL NERVE AGENTS FALL INTO TWO MAIN CLASSES: G- 

SERIES AND V-SCRIES. THE G-SERIES CONSISTS OF GA, GB,

GD, GE, GF, GH, AND A NUMBER OF SIMILAR EXPERI-

MENTAL AGENTS. THESE AGENTS, PARTICULARLY GA AND

GB, TEND TO BE LESS PERSISTENT THAN THEIR V-SERIES

COUNTERPARTS AND CONSEQUENTLY PRESENT LESS OF A SKIN

HAZARD. THESE LESS PERSISTENT AGENTS ARE USED TO CAUSE

IMMEDIATE CASUALTIES AND TO CREATE A SHORT-TERM RESPI- 

RATORY HAZARD ON THE BATTLEFIELD. THE MORE PERSISTENT

AND GENERALLY MORE TOXIC V-AGENTS, INCLUDING VE, VG,

VM, VS, VX, AND RELATED EXPERIMENTAL AGENTS, PRE-

SENT A GREATER SKIN HAZARD AND ARE USED TO CREATE LONG-

TERM CONTAMINATION OF TERRITORY.



PSYCHOCHEMICALS

PSYCHOCHEMICALS, ALSO CONSIDERED INCAPACITANTS, IN-

CLUDE HALLUCINOGENIC COMPOUNDS SUCH AS LYSERGIC ACID

DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD), 3-QUINUCLIDINYL BENZILATE (BZ),

AND BENACTYZINE. THESE AGENTS ALTER THE NERVOUS SYS-

TEM, THEREBY CAUSING VISUAL AND AURAL HALLUCINATIONS,

A SENSE OF UNREALITY, AND CHANGES IN THE THOUGHT

PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR. PSYCHOCHEMICALS ARE GENERAL-

LY CHARACTERIZED BY A SLIGHTLY DELAYED ONSET OF SYMP-

TOMS AND BY PERSISTENCE OF SYMPTOMS FOR A PERIOD

GREATLY EXCEEDING EXPOSURE TIME.



THE ADVANTAGE OF PSYCHOCHCMICALS IS THEIR ABILITY TO

INACTIVATE BOTH CIVILIAN AND MILITARY PERSONNEL FOR A

RELATIVELY SHORT PERIOD WITH ESSENTIALLY NO FATALITIES.

THUS, THEIR USE MAY PROVE ADVANTAGEOUS IN AREAS WITH

FRIENDLY POPULATIONS. ONE DRAWBACK, HOWEVER, IS THAT

THE EFFECTS OF MANY OF THESE AGENTS ARE UNPREDICTABLE,

RANGING FROM OVERWHELMING FEAR AND PANIC TO EXTREME

BELLIGERENCE IN WHICH EXPOSED PERSONNEL ATTACK WITH

LITTLE REGARD FOR PERSONAL SAFETY.







TEAR GAS AGENTS

TEAR GAS AGENTS FALL UNDER THE BROADER CATEGORY OF RIOT

CONTROL AGENTS. THEY ARE NOT CONSIDERED BY THE US

GOVERNMENT TO BE CW AGENTS BECAUSE THEY ARE

NONLETHAL IN ALL BUT THE HIGHEST CONCENTRATIONS. EXAM-

PLES OF THIS TYPE OF AGENT INCLUDE ORTHOCHLOROBENZYLI-

DENE MALONONITRILE (CS), CHLOROACETOPHENONE (CN),

CHLOROPICRIN (PS), AND BROMOBENZYL CYANIDE (BBC).

THESE AGENTS ARE HIGHLY IRRITATING, PARTICULARLY TO THE

EYES AND RESPIRATORY TRACT, AND CAUSE EXTREME DISCOM-

FORT. SYMPTOMS OCCUR ALMOST IMMEDIATELY UPON EXPO-

SURE AND GENERALLY DISAPPEAR SHORTLY A EXPOSURE

CEASES.



IN MILITARY SITUATIONS, TEAR GAS AGENTS ARE USED TO

TEMPORARILY REDUCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENEMY PERSON-

NEL. IN TACTICAL OPERATIONS, THEY CAN BE USED TO PENE-

TRATE FORTIFIED POSITIONS AND FLUSH OUT THE ENEMY. ALSO,

THESE AGENTS ARE USEFUL FOR DISRUPTING HUMAN WAVE

ASSAULTS BY BREAKING UP FORMATIONS AND DESTROYING THE

MOMENTUM OF THE ATTACK. BECAUSE TEAR GAS AGENTS ARE

NONLETHAL, THEY CAN BE USED NEAR FRIENDLY TROOPS

WITHOUT RISKING CASUALTIES; THUS, THEIR USE IS MORE

FLEXIBLE THAN WITH CONVENTIONAL CW AGENTS.



VOMITING AGENTS

VOMITING AGENTS ARE OFTEN CONSIDERED TO BE RIOT

CONTROL AGENTS BECAUSE, UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS, THEY

CAUSE GREAT DISCOMFORT BUT RARELY SERIOUS INJURY OR

DEATH. CHARACTERISTIC AGENTS INCLUDE ADAMSITE (DW

AND DIPHENYL CHLOROARSINE (DA). IN ADDITION TO CAUS-

ING VOMITING, THESE ARSENIC-BASED AGENTS MAY ALSO

IRRITATE THE EYES AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.



THE ACTION OF VOMITING AGENTS MAY MAKE IT IMPOSSIBLE

TO PUT ON, OR CONTINUE WEARING, A PROTECTIVE MASK.







THEY MAY ALSO BE USED BY THEM-

SELVES IN PROXIMITY TO FRIENDLY TROOPS AND IN OTHER

SITUATIONS WELL-SUITED FOR TEAR GAS AGENTS.







1.5 (C)

73909:73909

Document Page: First | Prev | Next | All | Image | This Release | Search