File: 062596_cia_73925_68275_01.txt
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Subject: IRAQ'S CBW CAPABILITY IN THE KTO Not Finally Evaluated Intelligence TO FACILITATE ELECTRONIC ACCESS, THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REFORMATTED TO ELIMINATE INFORMATION THAT DOES NOT PERTAIN TO GULF WAR ILLNESS ISSUES OR THAT IS CLASSIFIED. A COPY OF THIS REDACTED DOCUMENT, IN ORIGINAL FORMAT, IS AVAILABLE ON REQUEST. DIRECTOR OF CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE IN THE KUWAIT THEATER OF OPERATIONS: IRAQ'S CAPABILITY COMMITTEE INTELLIGENCE REPORT CONTENTS PAGE KEY JUDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 IRAQ'S CBW CAPABILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 DELIVERY SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 TACTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 LOGISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 PREPAREDNESS AND CURRENT DEPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 11 LIKELIHOOD OF CW OR BW USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 OUTLOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 APPENDIX A: DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 APPENDIX B: CHARACTERISTICS OF BOTULINUM TOXIN AND ANTHRAX BACTERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 APPENDIX C: CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS PRODUCING CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENT-LIKE INJURIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 APPENDIX D: CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS AND FIELD EMPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 APPENDIX E: REFERENCES ON CHEMICAL AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AND TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 KEY JUDGMENTS IRAQ MAINTAINS THE MOST EXTENSIVE CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE (CW AND BW) CAPABILITY IN THE THIRD WORLD. BAGHDAD'S FORCES HAVE A RANGE OF CHEMICAL AGENTS AND DELIVERY MEANS, AS WELL AS THE EXPERIENCE AND TRAINING NEEDED TO USE CHEMICAL WEAPONS EFFECTIVELY. BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS HAVE ONLY BEEN DEVELOPED RECENTLY. IRAQ IS LIKELY TO USE CHEMICAL WEAPONS AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF ITS TACTICAL OPERATIONS. AT PRESENT, IRAQI FORCES IN THE KUWAIT THEATER OF OPERATIONS (KTO) ARE IN A DEFENSIVE POSTURE. THEY ARE NOT POSITIONED TO LAUNCH AN OFFENSIVE AGAINST ALLIED FORCES IN SAUDI ARABIA SUPPORTED BY CHEMICAL WEAPONS. THIS DEFENSIVE POSTURE DOES NOT PRECLUDE OR NEGATE A SHIFT TO AN OFFENSIVE MODE OR THE USE OF CHEMICALS IN ATTACKS AGAINST COALITION FORCES. IRAQ CAN DELIVER CHEMICAL WEAPONS TO DEEPER TARGETS USING EITHER AIRCRAFT OR BALLISTIC MISSILES. THE SUCCESS OF AIRCRAFT ATTACKS IS DEPENDENT ON IRAQRS CAPABILITY TO PENETRATE AIR DEFENSES. IRAQ HAS SOME CHEMICAL WARHEADS FOR ITS BALLISTIC MISSILES, BUT THEIR EFFECTIVENESS IS LIMITED BY POOR ACCURACY AND RELATIVELY SMALL CHEMICAL PAYLOADS. WE BELIEVE IRAQ HAS SOME BIOLOGICAL AGENT DELIVERY CAPABILITY. THE USE OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS BY IRAQ WOULD PROBABLY BE FOR LARGE AREA COVERAGE IF SADDAM HUSAYN BELIEVES HIS REGIME IS THREATENED. HOWEVER, THE USE OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AGAINST MILITARY TARGETS (TO INCLUDE SHIPS) PRIOR TO THE INITIATION OF HOSTILITIES CANNOT BE EXCLUDED. BIOLOGICAL ATTACKS COULD BE LAUNCHED CLANDESTINELY. IRAQ'S CBW CAPABILITIES CHEMICAL AGENTS (SEE TABLE 1) IRAQ'S CW AGENTS USED IN THE WAR WITH IRAN INCLUDE THE PERSISTENT BLISTER AGENT MUSTARD, THE SEMIPERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS TABUN (GA) AND GF, AND THE NONPERSISTENT NERVE AGENT SARIN (GB). THE RIOT CONTROL AGENT CS WAS ALSO USED ON THE BATTLEFIELD. AFTER THE WAR, IRAQ INVESTIGATED, AND MAY HAVE TABLE 1 IRAQI CHEMICAL AGENTS AGENT RELATIVE TYPE PERSISTENCE1 MUSTARD (HD) VESICANT PERSISTENT SARIN (GB) NERVE NONPERSISTENT TABUN2 (GA) NERVE SEMIPERSISTENT GF NERVE SEMIPERSISTENT DUSTY MUSTARD2,3 VESICANT NONPERSISTENT VX NERVE PERSISTENT SOMAN (GD) NERVE SEMIPERSISTENT BZ PSYCHOCHEMICAL PERSISTENT 1 RELATIVE PERSISTENCE IS AFFECTED BY A NUMBER OF FACTORS INCLUDING TEMPERATURE, WIND SPEED, HUMIDITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TOPOGRAPHY. 2 TABUN WAS USED EXTENSIVELY IN THE WAR WITH IRAN, WHILE DUSTY MUSTARD WAS USED HOWEVER, THESE AGENTS MAY NOT CURRENTLY BE IN THE IRAQI ARSENAL. 3 DUSTY MUSTARD IS A DISSEMINATION MEANS, NOT A DIFFERENT AGENT. THIS MATERIAL IS A CHEMICAL AGENT IMPREGNATED ON A CARRIER MATERIAL. THE PERSISTENCE OF DUSTY MUSTARD DEPENDS ON THE CARRIER'S PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS, WHILE ITS TOXICITY IS A RESULT OF THE MUSTARD AGENT ON THE DUST SUBSEQUENTLY PRODUCED, LIMITED AMOUNTS OF THE PERSISTENT NERVE AGENT VX. THE NERVE AGENT SOMAN (GD) AND THE PSYCHOCHEMICAL BZ MAY ALSO BE UNDER DEVELOPMENT. IRAQ MAY HAVE AN INTEREST IN CYANIDE AGENTS AND PHOSGENE OXIME, AND MAY ALSO HAVE INVESTI- GATED OTHER AGENTS OR MODIFICATIONS TO THE ABOVE-NAMED IRAQ HAS PRODUCED AN AGENT REFERRED TO AS DUSTY MUSTARD. A DUSTY AGENT IS A CHEMICAL AGENT IMPREGNATED ON A CARRIER MATERIAL, USUALLY A FINE DUST. IN 1984-1985, IRAQ USED WEAPONS CONTAINING A DUST IMPREGNATED WITH MUSTARD AGAINST IRAN. IRAQ HAS THE TECHNOLOGY TO DEVELOP DUSTY FORMS OF NERVE AGENTS AND POSSIBLY OTHER TOXIC MATERIALS, BIOLOGICAL AGENTS IRAQ HAS DEVELOPED ANTHRAX SPORES AND BOTULINUM TOXIN AS AGENTS. WE JUDGE THAT THE IRAQIS ARE LIKELY INVESTIGATING A RANGE OF OTHER TOXINS AND LIVE AGENTS. THE IRAQIS HAVE SHOWN AN INTEREST IN DEVELOPING CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS, STAPHYLO- COCCUS ENTEROTOXIN B (SEB), AND MYCOTOXINS, DELIVERY SYSTEMS CHEMICAL WEAPONS IRAQ HAS A VARIETY OF CHEMICAL WEAPON DELIVERY SYSTEMS AVAILABLE TO DELIVER CHEMICAL AGENTS. IRAQ USED SEVERAL MEANS OF CHEMICAL DELIVERY IN THE WAR WITH IRAN: AERIAL BOMBS, ARTILLERY AND MORTAR ROUNDS, MULTIPLE ROCKET LAUNCHERS (MRLS), AND AIR-TO-SURFACE ROCKETS. MISSILES IRAQ HAS SOME CHEMICAL WARHEADS FOR SCUD B/MODIFIED SCUD B SHORT-RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILES. DUE TO THE POOR ACCURACY AND RELATIVELY SMALL CHEMICAL PAYLOADS OF THESE MISSILES, THEY HAVE ONLY LIMITED EFFECTIVENESS AGAINST MILITARY POINT TARGETS. HOWEVER, THEY COULD BE USED AS TERROR WEAPONS AGAINST CIVILIAN POPULATION CENTERS. BINARY WEAPONS IN APRIL 1990, SADDAM HUSAYN ANNOUNCED THAT IRAQ HAD BINARY CHEMICAL WEAPONS. IRAQ HAS PRODUCED AT LEAST SOME BINARY WEAPONS, MOST LIKELY CONTAINING THE NERVE AGENTS SARIN AND GF. TABLE 2 IRAQI CHEMICAL MUNITIONS AND DELIVERY SYSTEMS ARTILLERY 155 MM 152 MM 130 MM 122 MM ROCKETS MORTARS 82 MM 120 MM AERIAL 250 KG BOMBS 500 KG BOMBS CLUSTER BOMBS (REPORTED) 90 MM AIR-TO-GROUND ROCKETS HELICOPTERBORNE MISSILES1 SCUD AL-HUSAYN AL-ABBAS 1 IRAQ HAS CHEMICAL WARHEADS FOR ITS SCUD-TYPE MISSILES, BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS IRAQ HAS THE TECHNICAL CAPABILITY TO INCORPORATE ITS BW AGENTS INTO A VARIETY OF WEAPONS. CANDIDATE SYSTEMS INCLUDE CLUSTER AND AERIAL BOMBS, MISSILE WARHEADS, AND SPRAY SYSTEMS. WE BELIEVE THAT IRAQ PLANS TO DEVELOP A BIOLOGICAL WARHEAD FOR ITS SCUD-TYPE MISSILES, WE BELIEVE IRAQ HAS THE NECESSARY TECHNICAL EXPERTISE TO PUT ITS BIOLOGICAL AGENTS INTO A MISSILE WARHEAD. THE MISSILE'S POOR ACCURACY AND SMALL PAYLOAD LIMIT ITS EFFECT TIVENESS FOR DELIVERING CHEMICAL AGENTS. CHEMICAL AGENTS, EVEN UNDER OPTIMAL CONDITIONS, ARE SIGNIFICANTLY LESS EFFECTIVE THAN AN EQUIVALENT AMOUNT OF BIOLOGICAL AGENT. FOR EXAMPLE, ONE WARHEAD FILLED WITH ANTHRAX SPORES COULD LETHALLY CONTAMINATE LARGE AREAS. EFFECTIVE DISSEMINATION OF SUCH AN AGENT WOULD NOT EVEN BE NECESSARY IF IT WERE TO BE USED AS A TERROR AGAINST A CIVILIAN POPULATION. TACTICS CHEMICAL IRAQI FORCES MADE EFFECTIVE USE OF THEIR CHEMICAL SUPERI- ORITY IN THE FINAL OFFENSIVES IN THE WAR WITH IRAN. THE CAREFULLY REHEARSED IRAQI BATTLE PLANS FOR THE 1988 SPRING AND SUMMER CAMPAIGNS CALLED FOR THE USE OF CHEMICALS AGAINST SELECTED TARGETS. BY USING CHEMICALS AT ADVANTAGEOUS TIMES, THE IRAQIS NEUTRALIZED FORWARD TARGETS USING NONPERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS WHILE DEEPER TARGETS WERE ATTACKED WITH BOTH PERSISTENT AND NONPERSISTENT AGENTS. SINCE IRAN HAD ONLY LIMITED PROTECTION CAPABILITIES, THESE ATTACKS WERE OFTEN EFFECTIVE. ALSO, THERE WAS NO CREDIBLE THREAT OF IRANIAN RETALIATION WITH CHEMICAL WEAPONS. PRIOR TO 1988, IRAQ'S OFFENSIVE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS AGAINST IRAN WAS INFREQUENT. ATTACKS DURING THIS PERIOD WERE NOT AS EFFECTIVE AS THOSE LATER ON BECAUSE THE CHEMICAL WEAPONS WERE USED DURING UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS OR WERE IMPROPERLY DELIVERED. CHEMICAL WEAPON EFFECTIVENESS PROBABLY WAS LIMITED INITIALLY DUE TO IRAQI INEXPERIENCE. IT WAS ALSO REDUCED BY HIGH LEVEL AUTHORITIES EXERCISING RESTRICTIVE CONTROL OF THE WEAPONS. WHEN CHEMICAL ARTILLERY RELEASE AUTHORITY WAS DELEGATED TO FIELD COMMANDERS LATER IN THE WAR, THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CHEMICAL ATTACKS IMPROVED. BIOLOGICAL BIOLOGICAL AGENTS CAN BE USED AGAINST TACTICAL OR STRATEGIC TARGETS. PREPAREDNESS AND CURRENT DEPLOYMENT GROUND IRAQI FORCES IN THE KTO ARE CURRENTLY IN A DEFENSIVE POSTURE. BAGHDAD'S FORCES ARE PREPARED TO USE GROUND-FORCE, FIRE-SUPPORT WEAPONS WITH CHEMICAL FIRES THIS DEFENSIVE POSTURE DOES NOT PRECLUDE OR NEGATE A SHIFT TO AN OFFENSIVE MODE OR THE USE OF CHEMICALS IN ATTACKS AGAINST COALITION FORCES. UNLESS US FORCES ARE MOVED CLOSER TO THE KUWAIT-SAUDI ARABIA BORDER, CHEMICAL AGENT DELIVERY WOULD BE LIMITED TO AIRCRAFT OR MISSILES. LIKELIHOOD OF CW OR BW USE AUTHORITY FOR THE USE OF CHEMICAL OR BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS ALMOST CERTAINLY RESTS WITH SADDAM HUSAYN. HOWEVER, AS NOTED EARLIER, DURING THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR, AUTHORITY FOR GROUND FORCE EMPLOYMENT OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS WAS SUBSEQUENTLY DELEGATED TO INDIVIDUAL CORPS COMMANDERS. THE REPUBLICAN GUARD FORCES COMMAND (RGFC) WOULD PROBABLY BE THE FIRST CORPS LEVEL ORGANIZATION TO RECEIVE THIS AUTHORITY. IT IS LIKELY THAT CHEMICAL WEAPONS USE IS ALREADY INTEGRATED INTO RGFC OPERATIONAL PLANS. BEFORE INITIATING CHEMICAL OR BIOLOGICAL WARFARE OPERA- TIONS, SADDAM AND HIS STAFF WILL LIKELY CONSIDER SEVERAL FACTORS SUCH AS THE PREPAREDNESS OF OPPOSING FORCES, UNCERTAINTY OF RESULTS, RELIABILITY OF SUPPLY, AND POSSIBLE RETALIATION, SPECIFICALLY, THE FOLLOWING WILL ALMOST CERTAINLY BE CONSIDERED: DURING THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR, IRAQI AIRCRAFT WERE GENERALLY UNCHALLENGED AND COULD DELIVER BOMBS TO VIRTUALLY ANY TARGET. IN THE CURRENT SITUATION, COALITION AIR DEFENSES AND AIR SUPERIORITY WOULD MAKE DELIVERY BY IRAQI AIRCRAFT DIFFICULT AT BEST. IRAQ COULD ATTACK DEEP TARGETS WITH MISSILES, BUT SUCH ATTACKS WOULD BE OF QUESTIONABLE EFFECTIVENESS. COALITION FORCES HAVE EFFECTIVE CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND TRAINING WHEN COMPARED WITH THE POORLY TRAINED AND EQUIPPED IRANIAN TROOPS. THE GENERALLY POOR QUALITY OF CHEMICAL AGENTS IN IRAQ'S ARSENAL MAY REDUCE THE RELIABILITY OF ITS CHEMICAL ATTACKS. IRAQ IS TRYING TO IMPROVE AGENT QUALITY BY INTRODUCING BINARY WEAPONS INTO ITS INVENTORY. THE UNITED STATES HAVE CHEMICAL ARSENALS WHICH COULD ACT AS A DETERRENT. OUTLOOK IRAQ WILL ATTEMPT TO IMPROVE ITS CAPABILITY TO DELIVER CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL AGENTS. AS A RESULT OF IRAQ'S USE OF CHEMICALS IN THE WAR WITH IRAN, THE IRAQIS RECOGNIZE THE UTILITY OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS IN WAR AND HAVE CONFIDENCE IN THEIR ABILITY TO USE THEIR CHEMICAL ARSENAL. BASED ON THE DISPOSITION OF FORCES DURING THE AUGUST THROUGH EARLY NOVEMBER 1990 PERIOD, IRAQ IS NOT CURRENTLY POSITIONED TO LAUNCH AN OFFENSIVE SUPPORTED BY GROUND FORCE CHEMICAL WEAPONS AGAINST COALITION FORCES ITS FORCE DISPOSITION AND DEPLOYMENT WILL HAVE TO BE CHANGER SIGNIFICANTLY TO SUPPORT SUCH A COURSE. THIS CHANGE COULD OCCUR RAPIDLY. WE BELIEVE THAT CHEMICAL ATTACKS USING AIRCRAFT AGAINST DEEP TARGETS HAVE ONLY LIMITED CHANCES OF SUCCESS AS LONG AS AIR DEFENSE SYSTEMS, PROTECTIVE TRAINING, AND DISCIPLINE OF COALITION FORCES ARE MAINTAINED IN A HIGH STATE OF READINESS. APPENDIX A DEFINITIONS CHEMICAL WARFARE (CW) IS THE USE OF TOXIC CHEMICALS TO ACHIEVE A RESULT IN WARFARE. THE TOXIC EFFECT OF THE CHEMICAL CAN BE TO INCAPACITATE, INJURE, OR KILL, AND IS USUALLY INTENDED FOR USE AGAINST PERSONNEL. THE US DOES NOT CONSIDER RIOT CONTROL AGENTS, HERBICIDES, SMOKES AND OBSCURANTS, FLAME, AND INCENDIARIES TO BE CHEMICAL AGENTS. THIS DEFINITION IS NOT SHARED BY EVERY OTHER COUNTRY. BIOLOGICAL WARFARE (BW) IS THE USE OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS TO CAUSE DISEASE IN MEN, ANIMALS, OR PLANTS. BW MAY ALSO CAUSE DETERIORATION OF MILITARY OR STRATEGIC MATERIEL. IN THIS PAPER, TOXINS WILL BE TREATED TOGETHER WITH BIOLOGICAL AGENTS. APPENDIX B CHARACTERISTICS OF BOTULINUM TOXIN AND ANTHRAX BACTERIA BOTULINUM TOXIN BOTULINUM TOXIN IS PRODUCED BY CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM. THIS BACTERIUM GROWS ANAEROBICALLY, THAT IS, WITHOUT THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN. THE TOXIN PRODUCES ITS EFFECTS WHEN IT IS EITHER INGESTED OR INHALED. BOTULINUM TOXIN POISONING IS ALMOST ALWAYS FATAL. BOTULINUM TOXIN AFFECTS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, WITH DEATH RESULTING FROM PARALYSIS OF THE NERVES THAT CONTROL BREATHING. WHEN EXPOSURE TAKES PLACE THROUGH INGESTION, GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOMS ARE OBSERVED BEFORE THE ONSET OF NEUROLOGICAL SYMPTOMS. ONCE THESE SYMPTOMS BEGIN, THEY INCLUDE WEAKNESS, DIZZINESS, BLURRED OR DOUBLE VISION, FIXED AND DILATED PUPILS, IMPAIRED REACTION TO LIGHT, DROOPING EYELIDS, FACIAL MUSCLE WEAKNESS, AND SPEECH DIFFICULTIES. WHEN EXPOSURE TO BOTULINUM TAKES PLACE THROUGH THE RESPIRATORY ROUTE, GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOMS ARE ABSENT. THERE ARE ANTISERA TO BOTULINUM TOXINS, BUT THEY ARE ONLY EFFECTIVE IF ADMINISTERED BEFORE ONSET OF SYMPTOMS. IT IS HIGHLY UNLIKELY THAT EXPOSURE TO BOTULINUM WOULD BE DIAGNOSED UNTIL CLINICAL SYMPTOMS APPEARED, AND TREATMENT AT THAT TIME WOULD BE TOO LATE. CONVERSELY, IMMUNIZATION TO BOTULINUM IS POSSIBLE, BUT REQUIRES MULTIPLE INJECTIONS OF INACTIVATED TOXINS OVER A PERIOD OF SEVERAL MONTHS. THUS, A COUNTRY THAT HAD DEVELOPED BOTULINUM TOXIN AS A BW AGENT COULD PROTECT ITS TROOPS FROM EXPOSURE TO THE TOXIN. ANTHRAX ANTHRAX IS PRODUCED BY THE BACTERIUM BACILLUS ANTHRACIS. UNLIKE BOTULINUM TOXIN, ANTHRAX SYMPTOMS RESULT WHEN THE BACTERIA MULTIPLY IN THE BODY, PRODUCING TOXINS. EACH BACTERIUM PRODUCES AND RELEASES ONLY A SMALL AMOUNT OF ANTHRAX TOXIN AS IT GROWS; HOWEVER, AS THE BACTERIA MULTIPLY, MORE TOXIN IS PRODUCED. ANTHRAX IS CONSIDERED A LIVING BW AGENT BECAUSE IT MUST REPRODUCE IN THE BODY TO CAUSE AN EFFECT. THERE ARE THREE FORMS OF ANTHRAX, CHARACTERIZED BY THE MODE OF ENTRY INTO THE BODY: THROUGH CUTS IN THE SKIN (CUTANEOUS), THROUGH INGESTION (GASTROINTESTINAL), OR THROUGH INHALATION (PULMONARY). ANTHRAX IS A NATURALLY-OCCURRING DISEASE IN LIVE- STOCK. HUMANS MOST FREQUENTLY CONTRACT THE CUTANEOUS FORM OF THE DISEASE WHEN THEY COME IN CONTACT WITH INFECTED ANIMALS. THE GASTROINTESTINAL FORM OF THE DISEASE RESULTS FROM INGESTING CONTAMINATED MEAT. OF THESE THREE FORMS, PULMONARY ANTHRAX IS FATAL MORE THAN 90 PERCENT OF THE TIME AND OCCURS ONLY VERY RARELY. GASTROINTESTINAL ANTHRAX IS FATAL ABOUT 75 PERCENT OF THE TIME, AND CUTANEOUS ANTHRA. FATAL LESS THAN TEN PERCENT OF THE TIME, AND THEN ONLY IF UNTREATED. ALL FORMS OF THE DISEASE RESPOND WELL TO ANTIBIOTICS IF THE DRUG IS GIVEN SHORTLY AFTER THE ONSET OF SYMPTOMS. THE DISEASE IS FAIRLY UNCOMMON, HOWEVER, AND THE DIAGNOSIS OF EITHER GASTROINTESTI- NAL OR PULMONARY ANTHRAX IS OFTEN MADE ONLY AFTER DEATH. ANTHRAX WOULD MOST LIKELY BE USED AS AN AEROSOL SUSPEN- SION OF SPORES FOR BW PURPOSES. AFTER ANTHRAX SPORES ARE INHALED, THERE IS AN INCUBATION PERIOD FROM ONE TO SEVERAL DAYS BEFORE NON-SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS--SUCH AS FATIGUE AND MILD FEVER--APPEAR. AT THIS POINT, THE ILLNESS IS FREQUENTLY DIAGNOSED AS A RESPIRATORY INFECTION. THESE INITIAL SYMPTOMS USUALLY IMPROVE TWO TO FOUR DAYS LATER, FOLLOWED BY A SUDDEN ONSET OF RESPIRATORY DISTRESS. PULSE, TEMPERATURE, AND RESPIRATORY RATE BECOME ELEVATED, AND THE VICTIM BECOMES CYANOTIC--BLUE-BLACK COLORED. DEATH USUALLY OCCURS WITHIN 24 HOURS AFTER ONSET OF THE SECOND PHASE OF SYMPTOMS. ANTHRAX SPORES ARE VERY HARDY IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND IN STORAGE. IT IS THIS SPECIALIZED FORM OF THE BACTERIUM THAT INFECTS HUMANS. GROWING BACTERIA, WHEN,EXPOSED TO ADVERSE CONDITIONS--EXTREME HEAT OR COLD, LACK OF NUTRIENTS--PRODUCE SPORES. THE SPORES, WHICH CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS SEEDS, REMAIN IN AN INERT STATE UNTIL THEY ENTER THE BODY AND ENCOUNTER CONDITIONS SUITABLE FOR THEM TO BEGIN MULTIPLYING. APPENDIX C CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS PRODUCING CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENT-LIKE INJURIES MANY CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS MAY PRODUCE CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENT-LIKE INJURIES. EVEN OBSERVERS WHO ARE KNOWLEDGEABLE OF THE EFFECTS OF CW AGENTS MAY MISTAKENLY USE THE EFFECTS OF NONCHEMICAL WEAPONS TO REPORT CHEMICAL WEAPONS USE. THE CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS MOST LIKELY TO PRODUCE CW-AGENT-LIKE INJURIES INCLUDE FLAME (NAPALM), INCENDIARIES, OBSCURANTS, SMOKES, RIOT-CONTROL AGENTS, FUEL-AIR EXPLOSIVES, AND SPECIAL MILITARY EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES: INCENDIARY WEAPONS CAUSE BURNS AND OTHER EFFECTS THAT MAY BE CONFUSED WITH THE USE OF CW AGENTS. THEY MAY ALSO PRODUCE FUMES THAT CAUSE TRUE, TOXIC CHEMICAL INJURIES UNRELATED TO THE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS. AN UNUSUAL CASE FOR CONFUSING CONVENTIONAL AND CW-AGENT INJURIES OCCURS WHEN THE USE OF INCENDIARIES RESULTS IN DEATH BECAUSE OF A LACK OF OXYGEN. THESE CASUALTIES APPEAR THE SAME AS THOSE WHOSE DEATH RESULTED FROM RAPIDLY ACTING CW AGENTS SUCH AS BLOOD OR NERVE AGENTS. RIOT-CONTROL AGENTS AND EXPLOSIVE CHEMICALS IN FUEL-AIR MUNITIONS CAN CAUSE CHEMICAL BURNS TO THE SKIN (IF DOSES ARE SUFFICIENTLY HIGH) SIMILAR TO THOSE PRODUCED BY BLISTER AGENTS. TACTICAL SMOKES AND RIOT-CONTROL AGENTS WILL CAUSE SYMPTOMS SUCH AS NAUSEA, COUGHING, AND DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING, ALL OF WHICH ARE OFTEN CONFUSED WITH THE EFFECTS OF CW CHOKING AGENTS. INJURIES AND DEATHS PRODUCED BY BLAST EFFECTS OF FUEL-AIR EXPLOSIVES OFTEN ARE CONFUSED WITH THOSE CAUSED BY NERVE AGENTS BECAUSE OF THE VIRTUAL ABSENCE OF VISIBLE PHYSICAL DAMAGE. INJURIES OCCURRING WHEN A FUEL AND DUST-AIR EXPLOSIVE FAILS TO DETONATE ARE TRUE CHEMICAL INJURIES AND ARE NOT A RESULT OF CW AGENTS. DIRECT CONTACT WITH THESE COMPOUNDS CAUSES IRRITATION, SKIN CORROSION, BURNS, AND ALLERGIC REACTIONS, ALL OF WHICH CAN BE CONFUSED WITH CHEMICAL WEAPON INJURIES. PENETRATION OF THESE COMPOUNDS INTO THE SKIN OR RESPIRATORY SYSTEM COULD LEAD TO TOXIC EFFECTS-IN THE BODY. INJURIES FROM FUEL-AIR EXPLOSIVES CAN ALSO EASILY BE MISIDENTIFIED AS BEING CAUSED BY CW AGENTS. APPENDIX D CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS AND FIELD EMPLOYMENT IN GENERAL, THE AMOUNT OF CW AGENT DELIVERED DETERMINES THE EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION AND THE NUMBER OF CASUALTIES. A ROUGH RULE OF THUMB IS THAT ONE TON (OR ABOUT FOUR 55-GALLON DRUMS) OF AGENT IS ENOUGH TO EFFECTIVELY CONTAMINATE ONE SQUARE MILE OF TERRITORY IF PROPERLY DISSEMINATED. THE NUMBER OF RESULTANT CASUALTIES DEPENDS ON THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN THE CONTAMINATED AREA, LENGTH OF WARNING, DEGREE OF PROTECTION, AND THE PERSISTENCY AND TOXICITY OF THE AGENT USED. THE PER- SISTENCY OF A SPECIFIC AGENT (LENGTH OF TIME IT REMAINS EFFECTIVE) VARIES, DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF MUNITION USED AND THE WEATHER CONDITIONS. FOR EXAMPLE, THE PERSISTENCY OF SARIN UNDER HOT, WINDY CONDITIONS IS MUCH LESS THAN ONE HOUR. THE PERSISTENCY OF MUSTARD OR VX MAY BE SEVERAL DAYS TO WEEKS UNDER COOL, CALM CONDITIONS. IN ALL CASES, GIVEN SUBLETHAL DOSES OF AN AGENT, INCAPACITATION WILL OCCUR TO VARYING DEGREES. BLISTER AGENTS BLISTER AGENTS ARE PRIMARILY USED TO CAUSE MEDICAL CASUALTIES. THESE AGENTS MAY ALSO BE USED TO RESTRICT USE OF TERRAIN, TO SLOW MOVEMENTS, AND TO HAMPER USE OF MATERIEL AND INSTALLATIONS. BLISTER AGENTS AFFECT THE EYES AND LUNGS AND BLISTER THE SKIN. SULFUR MUSTARD, NITROGEN MUSTARD, AND LEWISITE ARE EXAMPLES OF BLISTER AGENTS. MOST BLISTER AGENTS ARE INSIDIOUS IN ACTION; THERE IS LITTLE OR NO PAIN AT THE TIME OF EXPOSURE EXCEPT WITH LEWISITE, WHICH CAUSES IMMEDIATE PAIN ON CONTACT. MUSTARD IS PREFERRED OVER LEWISITE BECAUSE LEWISITE HYDROLYZES VERY RAPIDLY UPON EXPOSURE TO ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE TO FORM A NONVOLATILE SOLID. THIS CONVERSION LOWERS THE VAPOR HAZARD FROM CONTAMINATED TERRAIN AND DECREASES THE PENETRATION OF THE AGENT THROUGH CLOTHING. LEWISITE IS LESS PERSISTENT THAN IS MUSTARD; HOWEVER, THE PERSISTENCY OF BOTH IS LIMITED UNDER HUMID CONDITIONS. BLOOD AGENTS BLOOD AGENTS ARE ABSORBED INTO THE BODY PRIMARILY BY BREATHING. THEY PREVENT THE NORMAL UTILIZATION OF OXYGEN BY THE CELLS AND CAUSE RAPID DAMAGE TO BODY TISSUES. BLOOD AGENTS SUCH AS HYDROGEN CYANIDE (AC) AND CYANOGEN CHLORIDE (CK) ARE HIGHLY VOLATILE AND, IN THE GASEOUS STATE, DISSIPATE RAPIDLY IN AIR--GENERALLY WITHIN MINUTES. BECAUSE OF THEIR HIGH VOLATILITY, THESE AGENTS ARE MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN SURPRISE CAN BE ACHIEVED AGAINST TROOPS WHO DO NOT HAVE MASKS OR WHO ARE POORLY TRAINED IN MASK DISCIPLINE. IN ADDITION, BLOOD AGENTS ARE IDEALLY SUITED FOR USE ON TERRAIN THAT THE USER HOPES TO OCCUPY WITHIN A SHORT TIME. CHOKING AGENTS CHOKING AGENTS ARE THE OLDEST CW AGENTS. THIS CLASS OF AGENTS INCLUDES CHLORINE AND PHOSGENE, BOTH OF WHICH WERE USED IN WORLD WAR I. IN SUFFICIENT CONCENTRATIONS, THEIR CORROSIVE EFFECT ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM RESULTS IN PULMONARY EDEMA, FILLING THE LUNGS WITH FLUID AND CHOKING THE VICTIM. PHOSGENE IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN CHLORINE BECAUSE IT IS SLOWLY HYDROLYZED BY THE WATER IN THE LINING OF THE LUNGS, FORMING HYDROCHLORIC ACID, WHICH READILY DESTROYS THE TISSUE. THESE AGENTS ARE HEAVY GASES THAT REMAIN NEAR GROUND LEVEL AND TEND TO FILL DEPRESSIONS SUCH AS FOXHOLES AND TRENCHES. BECAUSE THEY ARE GASES, THEY ARE NONPERSISTENT AND DISSIPATE RAPIDLY, EVEN IN A SLIGHT BREEZE. AS A RESULT, THESE ARE AMONG THE LEAST EFFECTIVE TRADITIONAL CW AGENTS. THEY ARE USEFUL FOR CREATING A SHORT-TERM RESPIRATORY HAZARD ON TERRAIN THAT IS TO BE QUICKLY OCCUPIED. NERVE AGENTS NERVE AGENTS, INCLUDING TABUN (GA), SARIN (GB), SOMAN (GD), AND VX, ARE MEMBERS OF A CLASS OF COMPOUNDS THAT ARE MORE TOXIC AND QUICKER ACTING THAN MUSTARD. THEY ARE ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS THAT INHIBIT ACTION OF THE ENZYME CHOLINESTERASE. IN SUFFICIENT CONCENTRATION, THE ULTIMATE EFFECT OF THESE AGENTS IS PARALYSIS OF THE RESPIRATORY MUSCULATURE AND SUBSEQUENT DEATH. NERVE AGENTS ACT RAPIDLY (WITHIN SECONDS OF EXPOSURE) AND MAY BE ABSORBED THROUGH THE SKIN OR THROUGH THE RESPIRATORY TRACT. EXPOSURE TO A LETHAL DOSE MAY CAUSE DEATH IN LESS THAN 15 MINUTES. THEY ARE STORED IN MUNITIONS AS LIQUIDS AND ARE GENERALLY DISSEMINATED AS AEROSOLS. TRADITIONAL NERVE AGENTS FALL INTO TWO MAIN CLASSES: G-SERIES AND V-SERIES. THE G-SERIES CONSISTS OF GA, GB, GD, GE, GF, GH, AND A NUMBER OF SIMILAR EXPERIMENTAL AGENTS. THESE AGENTS, PARTICULARLY GA AND GB, TEND TO BE LESS PERSISTENT THAN THEIR V-SERIES COUNTERPARTS AND CONSEQUENTLY PRESENT LESS OF A SKIN HAZARD. THESE LESS PERSISTENT AGENTS ARE USED TO CAUSE IMMEDIATE CASUALTIES AND TO CREATE A SHORT-TERM RESPIRATORY HAZARD ON THE BATTLEFIELD. THE MORE PERSISTENT AND GENERALLY MORE TOXIC V-AGENTS, INCLUDING VE, VG, VM, VS, VX, AND RELATED EXPERIMENTAL AGENTS, PRESENT A GREATER SKIN HAZARD AND ARE USED TO CREATE LONG-TERM CONTAMINATION OF TERRITORY. PSYCHOCHEMICALS PSYCHOCHEMICALS, ALSO CONSIDERED AS INCAPACITANTS, INCLUDE HALLUCINOGENIC COMPOUNDS SUCH AS LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD), 3-QUINUCLIDINYL BENZILATE (BZ), AND BENACTYZINE. THESE AGENTS ALTER THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, THEREBY CAUSING VISUAL AND AURAL HALLUCINATIONS, A SENSE OF UNREALITY, AND CHANGES IN THE THOUGHT PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR. PSYCHOCHEMICALS ARE GENERALLY CHARACTERIZED BY A SLIGHTLY DELAYED ONSET OF SYMPTOMS AND BY PERSISTENCE OF SYMPTOMS FOR A PERIOD GREATLY EXCEEDING EXPOSURE TIME. THE ADVANTAGE OF PSYCHOCHEMICAL IS THEIR ABILITY TO IN- ACTIVATE BOTH CIVILIAN AND MILITARY PERSONNEL FOR A RELATIVELY SHORT PERIOD WITH ESSENTIALLY NO FATALITIES. THUS, THEIR USE MAY PROVE ADVANTAGEOUS IN AREAS WITH FRIENDLY POPULATIONS. ONE DRAWBACK, HOWEVER, IS THAT THE EFFECTS OF MANY OF THESE AGENTS ARE UNPREDICTABLE, RANGING FROM OVERWHELMING FEAR AND PANIC TO EXTREME BELLIGERENCE IN WHICH EXPOSED PERSONNEL ATTACK WITH, LITTLE REGARD FOR PERSONAL SAFETY. TEAR GAS AGENTS TEAR GAS AGENTS FALL UNDER THE BROADER CATEGORY OF RIOT CONTROL AGENTS. THEY ARE NOT CONSIDERED BY THE US GOVERNMENT TO BE CW AGENTS BECAUSE THEY ARE NONLETHAL IN ALL BUT THE HIGHEST CONCENTRATIONS. EXAMPLES OF THIS TYPE OF AGENT INCLUDE ORTHOCHLOROBENZYLIDENE MALONONITRILE (CS), CHLOROACETOPHENONE (CN) , CHLOROPICRIN (PS) , AND BROMOBENZYL CYANIDE (BBC). THESE AGENTS ARE HIGHLY IRRITATING, PARTICULARLY TO THE EYES AND RESPIRATORY TRACT, AND CAUSE EXTREME DISCOMFORT. SYMPTOMS OCCUR ALMOST IMMEDIATELY UPON EXPOSURE AND GENERALLY DISAPPEAR SHORTLY AFTER EXPOSURE CEASES. IN MILITARY SITUATIONS, TEAR GAS AGENTS ARE USED TO TEMPORARILY REDUCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENEMY PERSONNEL. IN TACTICAL OPERATIONS, THEY CAN BE USED TO PENETRATE FORTIFIED POSITIONS AND FLUSH OUT THE ENEMY. ALSO, THESE AGENTS ARE USEFUL FOR DISRUPTING HUMAN WAVE ASSAULTS BY BREAKING UP FORMATION AND DESTROYING THE MOMENTUM OF THE ATTACK. BECAUSE TEAR GAS AGENTS ARE NONLETHAL, THEY CAN BE USED NEAR FRIENDLY TROOPS WITHOUT RISKING CASUALTIES; THUS, THEIR USE IS MORE FLEXIBLE THAN WITH CONVENTIONAL CW AGENTS. VOMITING AGENTS VOMITING AGENTS ARE OFTEN CONSIDERED TO BE RIOT CONTROL AGENTS BECAUSE, UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS, THEY CAUSE GREAT DISCOMFORT BUT RARELY SERIOUS INJURY OR DEATH. CHARACTERISTIC AGENTS INCLUDE ADAMSITE (DM) AND DIPHENYL CHLOROARSINE (DA) IN ADDITION TO CAUSING VOMITING, THESE ARSENIC-BASED AGENT MAY ALSO IRRITATE THE EYES AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. THE ACTION OF VOMITING AGENTS MAY MAKE IT IMPOSSIBLE TO PUT ON, OR CONTINUE WEARING, A PROTECTIVE MASK. THEY MAY ALSO BE USED BY THEMSELVES IN PROXIMITY TO FRIENDLY TROOPS AND IN OTHER SITUATIONS WELL-SUITED FOR TEAR GAS AGENTS. 1.5 (C) 73925:68275
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